Decentralized Service Delivery Research Articles

Blockchain and public service delivery: a lifetime cross-referenced model for e-government

ABSTRACT The article presents the results of field studies, analysing the perspectives of blockchain developers on decentralised service delivery and elaborating on unique algorithms for lifetime ledgers to reliably and safely record e-government transactions in an intrinsically cross-referenced manner. New interesting technological niches of service delivery and emerging models of related data management in the industry were proposed and further elaborated such as the generation of unique lifetime personal data profiles, blockchain-driven cross-referencing of e-government metadata, parallel maintenance of serviceable ledgers for data identifiers and phenomena of blockchain ‘black holes’ to ensure reliable protection of important public, corporate and civic information.

Achieving a pro-poor local government budget process in Dokolo district, Uganda: The role of civil society organizations

Purpose: This study aimed to analyze the role of civil society organizations in pro-poor local government budget processes, with Dokolo District as a case study. The specific objectives of the study are (i) To examine the extent to which CSOs contribute to local government revenue enhancement; (ii) To examine the extent to which CSOs influence the enactment of pro-poor local government budget allocations/priorities (iii) To examine the extent to which CSOs promote pro-poor implementation of enacted local government budgets; and (iv) To examine the extent to which CSOs prevent leakages to local government budget resources.
 Methods and materials: The study adopted a descriptive and correlational design, employing both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The population of the study included officials of 10 civil society organizations and both technical and political leaders of 6 local governments in Dokolo district. The sample size of the study was 89 respondents determined using Krejcie and Morgan Table (Krejcie and Morgan, 1970). The target respondents included both males and females.
 Findings of the study: The findings of this study suggest that civil society organizations contribute to local government revenue enhancement, building the capacity of local governments in revenue mobilization, providing off-budget and on-budget support to local governments; that civil society organizations promote pro-poor local government budget allocations through forums such as budget conferences and budget dialogues; that civil society organizations influence local governments to implement their budgets in ways that serve the best interests of the poor and/or the underprivileged and/or their priorities; by pressurizing local governments to implement pro-poor priorities that local governments would otherwise not implement and by speeding up or reducing delay in the implementation of pro-poor priorities or projects; and that civil society organizations promote pro-poor local government budgets by preventing leakages to pro-poor local government resources by among others checking shoddy work in pro-poor projects, Public Expenditure Tracking Surveys (PETS) to check loss of funds meant for pro-poor projects.
 Conclusion: Civil society organisations remain in the pro-poor budgeting processes at both the central government level as well as the local government level in Uganda.
 Recommendations: From the findings, it is encouraged that local governments should leverage civil society organizations as an important resource in enhancing their revenue; that local governments should involve civil society organizations in all phases of the budget circle; that local governments should embrace the use of social accountability forums and tools such as barazas, Public Expenditure Tracking Surveys (PETS) and social movements for checking local government budget resource leakages to enhance decentralized service delivery. Based on what remains unknown, this study suggests future research on the role of social accountability in fighting poverty.

The contribution of Civil Society Organizations in pro-poor budgeting processes: A review on Local Governments in Uganda

Purpose: This study aimed to analyse the contribution of CSOs in pro-poor local government budget processes, with Dokolo District as a case study. The study addressed four questions, namely; (i) what is the extent to which CSOs contribute to local government revenue enhancement? (ii) What is the magnitude to which CSOs influence the enactment of pro-poor local government budget allocations/priorities? (iii) to what extent do CSOs promote pro-poor implementation of enacted local government budgets? And (iv) to what extent do CSOs prevent leakages to local government budget resources?
 Methodology: The study adopted a review of secondary literature gotten from journals, documentaries, periodicals, annual reports and statistical analyses
 Findings of the study: The findings suggest that CSOs contribute to local government revenue enhancement, building the capacity of local governments in revenue mobilization, providing off-budget and on-budget support to local governments; that CSOs promote pro-poor local government budget allocations through forums such as budget conferences and budget dialogues; that CSOs influence local governments to implement their budgets in ways that serve the best interests of the poor and/or the underprivileged and/or their priorities; by pressurizing local governments to implement pro-poor priorities that local governments would otherwise not implement and by speeding up or reducing delay in the implementation of pro-poor priorities or projects; and that CSOs promote pro-poor local government budgets by preventing leakages to pro-poor local government resources by among others checking shoddy work in pro-poor projects. 
 Recommendations: From the findings, it is encouraged that local governments should leverage CSOs as an important resource in enhancing their revenue; that local governments should involve CSOs in all phases of the budget circle; that local governments should embrace the use of social accountability forums and tools such as barazas, Public Expenditure Tracking Surveys (PETS) and social movements for checking local government budget resource leakages to enhance decentralized service delivery.
 Unique contribution to policy and/or practice: The results of this study are relevant to practitioners of civil society organisations seeing that the level of corruption in governments as well as the magnitude to which vulnerable sections continue to be marginalised is growing hence the need for the civil society to offer checks and balances in budget processes.

Service Delivery Performance of Urban Local Government in Bangladesh

Urban local government is critical to the delivery of essential services to residents. Paurashava is one of the tiers of local governments in Bangladesh. But, Paurashava is faced with increasing financial problems. Due to financial restrictions, city governments seem unable to expand much-needed infrastructure and utility services, as well as maintain current facilities at a sufficient level. To enhance urban living standards and alleviate constraints on the national budget, these governments' financial positions must be strengthened. The present study is aimed at exploring the performance management of Paurashava service delivery through utilizing mixed methods. Three Paurashavas were sampled for an in-depth study. The findings of the study reveal that resource mobilization opportunities in Bangladesh's urban areas are limited. A percentage of government grants that are paid based on performance can also be utilized to generate local resources. The major problems are inadequate assessment, inelasticity of revenue, employee training, and poor administration. This paper shows the performance evaluation of the Paurashava by its clients. Thus, this research is helpful to local government policymakers, municipal authorities as policy implementers and service providers, academicians, and those interested in local government and decentralized service delivery systems.

No man is an island: management of the emergency response to the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) outbreak in a large public decentralised service delivery organisation

BackgroundWe wanted to better understand whether and how agility can be achieved in a decentralised service delivery organisation in Sweden. The pandemic outbreak of SARS-Cov-2 (Covid-19) provided an opportunity to assess decentralisation as a strategy to improve the responsiveness of healthcare and at the same time handle an unpredictable and unexpected event.MethodsData from in-depth interviews with a crisis management team (n = 23) and free text answers in a weekly survey to subordinated clinical directors, i.e. unit managers, (n = 108) were scrutinised in a directed content analysis. Dynamic capabilities as a prerequisite for dynamic effectiveness, understood as reaching strategic and operative effectiveness simultaneously, were explored by using three frameworks for dynamic effectiveness, dynamic capabilities and delegated authority in a decentralised organisation.ResultsUnpredictable events, such as the pandemic Covid-19 outbreak, demand a high grade of ability to be flexible. We find that a high degree of operational effectiveness, which is imperative in an emergency situation, also is a driver of seeking new strategic positions to even better meet new demands. The characteristics of the dynamic capabilities evolving from this process are described and discussed in relation to decentralisation, defined by decision space, organisational and individual capacity as well as accountability. We present arguments supporting that a decentralised management model can facilitate the agility required in an emergency.ConclusionsThis study is, to our knowledge, the first of its kind where a decentralised management model in a service delivery organisation in healthcare is studied in relation to crisis management. Although stemming from one organisation, our findings indicating the value of decentralisation in situations of crisis are corroborated by theory, suggesting that they could be relevant in other organisational settings also.

Perceptions of diabetes patients and their caregivers regarding access to medicine in a severely constrained health system: A qualitative study in Harare, Zimbabwe.

Nearly half of all sub-Saharan African countries lack operational Diabetes Mellitus policies. This represents an opportunity to build reliable evidence to underpin such policies when they are eventually developed. Representing the interests of those with the experience of living with the condition in national diabetes policies is important, particularly the interests regarding medicine access, a key pillar in diabetes management. One way to achieve this representation is to publish patient perceptions. Patient perspectives are especially valuable in the context of diabetes in Sub-Saharan Africa, where much of the empirical work has focused on clinical and epidemiological questions. We therefore captured the challenges and suggestions around medicine access articulated by a population of diabetes patients and their caregivers. This was a qualitative interpretivist study based on data from focus group discussions with adult diabetes patients and their caregivers. Eight FGDs of 4-13 participants each whose duration averaged 13.35 minutes were conducted. Participants were recruited from diabetes outpatient clinics at two health facilities in Harare. One site was Parirenyatwa Hospital, the largest public referral and teaching hospital in Zimbabwe. The other was a private for-profit facility. Ethics approval was granted by the Joint Research Ethics Committee for University of Zimbabwe College of Health Sciences and the Parirenyatwa Group of Hospitals (Ref: JREC 295/18). Diabetes patients and their caregivers are interested in affordable access to medicines of acceptable form and quality with minimum effort. Yet, they often find themselves privileging one dimension of access over another e.g. prioritising affordability over acceptability. Based on participants' articulations, a sound diabetes policy should: 1. provide for financial and consumer protections, 2. regulate healthcare business practices and medicine prices, 3. provide for a responsive health workforce attentive to patient problems, 4. accord the same importance to diabetes that is accorded to communicable diseases, 5. decentralize diabetes management to lower levels of care, 6. limit wastage, corruption, bad macro-financial governance and a lack of transparency about how funding for health is used, and 7. provide support to strengthen patients' and caregivers' psychosocial networks. A diabetes policy acceptable to patients is one infused with principles of good governance, fairness, inclusiveness and humanity; characterised by: financial protection and price regulation, consumer protection, equity in the attention accorded to different diseases, decentralized service delivery, inclusion of patient voice in political decision-making, a responsive compassionate health workforce, psychosocial support for patients and their caregivers and allocative efficiency and transparency in public expenditure.

Experiences of Hispanic Families with Social Services in the Racially Segregated Southeast: Views from Administrators and Workers in North Carolina.

North Carolina—as a state in the racially segregated Southeast—offers a unique context to understand access to social services for Hispanic families and children. Theories of administrative burden posit that Hispanic families likely face high learning, compliance, and psychological costs. Hispanic families face challenges that compound these costs: limited English language and literacy proficiency, complex household composition, and citizenship status of family members and other household members. With new survey results and qualitative data on social service administrators and front-line workers, we examine how these costs may affect access to programs for Hispanic families who reside in a state with a history of racial divisions that have shaped local policy implementation. Some workers noted transportation barriers and complex application processes as limiting access. While we expected to find that Hispanic families may be disadvantaged by decentralized service delivery in a manner that is similar to the experiences of African American families, workers instead note significant resources that help facilitate Hispanic families’ access to programs. Workers view national anti-immigrant policies and rhetoric, rather than state and local policy rules or resource constraints, as limiting their capacity to serve Hispanic families.

Decentralization and the Limits to Service Delivery: Evidence From Northern Pakistan

While the relationship between decentralization and service delivery is underpinned by a set of normative theoretical assumptions, yet not only does the empirical evidence concerning this so-called relationship to date remains inconclusive at best but our understanding of the causes of ineffectiveness of decentralization initiatives with respect to service delivery is also striking. This article attempts to contribute to the debates concerning the relationship between decentralization and service delivery through an analysis of decentralization measures undertaken by the Government of Pakistan during the early 21st Century with the announced aims of improving the efficiency and responsiveness of government as well as the delivery of public services. Notwithstanding a decade of decentralized service delivery, wellbeing outcomes across districts in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province demonstrated remarkable discrepancy such that while some districts witnessed considerable amelioration in their respective composite indices, others experienced a marked deterioration, thus calling into question the normative assumptions that undergird the relationship between decentralization and service delivery. This article seeks to explain this outcome through a comparative case study of two localities in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province viz districts “Swabi” and “Lower Dir,” both of which had witnessed marked deterioration and amelioration in wellbeing outcomes, respectively, in the ex-post of implementation of the Devolution Plan. Data for the study were collected through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. The results demonstrate that political dynamics such as the nature of relationship between district governments and the provincial government, extent of political polarization prevalent within or among different levels of the local government system, and the role of bureaucracy turn out to be important factors that ostensibly account for the deterioration of wellbeing outcomes in Swabi district over the course of a decade of implementation of the local government system. The findings suggest that political factors have overshadowed technical considerations in terms of explaining the discrepant outcomes of decentralized service delivery across the two localities.

Design Guidelines for Blockchain-Assisted 5G-UAV Networks

Fifth generation (5G) wireless networks are designed to meet various end-user quality of service (QoS) requirements through high data rates (typically of gigabits per second) and low latencies. Coupled with fog and mobile edge computing, 5G can achieve high data rates, enabling complex autonomous smart city services such as the large deployment of self-driving vehicles and large-scale artificial-intelligence-enabled industrial manufacturing. However, to meet the exponentially growing number of connected IoT devices and irregular data and service requests in both low- and high-density locations, the process of enacting traditional cells supported through fixed and costly base stations requires rethought to enable on-demand mobile access points in the form of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) for diversified smart city scenarios. This article envisions a 5G network environment that is supported by blockchain-enabled UAVs to meet dynamic user demands with network access supply. The solution enables decentralized service delivery (drones as a service) and routing to and from end users in a reliable and secure manner. Both public and private blockchains are deployed within the UAVs, supported by fog and cloud computing devices and data centers to provide a wide range of complex authenticated service and data availability. Particular attention is paid to comparing data delivery success rates and message exchange in the proposed solution against traditional UAV-supported cellular networks. Challenges and future research are also discussed with highlights on emerging technologies such as federated learning.

Reflecting SDG 6.1 in Rural Water Supply Tariffs: Considering ‘Affordability’ Versus ‘Operations and Maintenance Costs’ in Malawi

Local tariffs in the form of household contributions are the primary financial mechanism to fund the maintenance of rural water supplies in Malawi. An investigation was conducted into the tariffs set by rural service providers to sustain drilled boreholes equipped with Afridev handpumps. A binary logistic regression analysis identified significant explanatory variables for the most common identified considerations when setting tariffs, ‘affordability’ and ‘operations and maintenance (O&M) costs’. The results demonstrate tariffs collected less frequently and usage above the design limit of the Afridev (300 users) had lower odds of considering affordability and higher odds of considering O&M costs, than those collected per month and within the design limit. The results further suggest a recognition by service providers of an increased maintenance challenge. High usage, acquiring spare parts, and the collection of tariffs when repairs are required indicate an increased likelihood of considering O&M costs, conversely to considering affordability. The balance of affordability and sustainable maintenance is a perpetual challenge under decentralised service delivery. Investment into ongoing support and supply chains is required for the financial and operational requirements of water supply, to ensure payments for services does not prevent access to clean water at the local level and to achieve the 2030 agenda.

Early Success With Retention in Care Among People Living With HIV at Decentralized ART Satellite Sites in Yangon, Myanmar, 2015-2016.

Introduction: Myanmar is one of the countries in the Asia-Pacific region hit hardest by the HIV epidemic that is concentrated among urban areas and key populations. In 2014, the National AIDS Programme (NAP) launched a new model of decentralized service delivery with the establishment ART satellite sites with care delivered by HIV peer workers.Methods: ART satellite sites are implemented by non-government organizations to service high burden HIV areas and populations that suffer stigma or find access to public sector services difficult. They provide continuity of HIV care from outreach testing, counseling, linkage to care, and retention in care. Anti-retroviral (ART) initiation occurs at health facilities by specialist physicians. We conducted a retrospective cohort study of people living with HIV (PLHIV) who were initiated on ART from 2015 to 2016 at five ART satellite sites in Yangon, Myanmar to assess outcomes and time from enrolment to ART initiation.Results: Of 1,339 PLHIV on ART treatment in 2015–16, 1,157 (89%) were retained, and 5% were lost from care and 5% reported dead, at the end of March 2018. Attrition rates (death and lost-to-follow-up) were found to be significantly associated with a CD4 count ≤ 50 cells/mm3 and having baseline weight ≤ 50 kg. Median time taken from enrolment to ART initiation was 1.9 months (interquartile range: 1.4–2.5).Conclusion: We report high rates of retention in care of PLHIV in a new model of ART satellite sties in Yangon, Myanmar after 3 years of follow-up. The delays identified in time taken from enrolment to ART initiation need to be explored further and addressed. This initial study supports continuation of plans to scale-up ART satellite sites in Myanmar. To optimize outcomes for patients and the program and accelerate progress to reduce HIV transmission and end the HIV epidemic, operational research needs to be embedded within the response.

Understanding the Functionality and Burden on Decentralised Rural Water Supply: Influence of Millennium Development Goal 7c Coverage Targets

The sustainability of rural groundwater supply infrastructure, primarily boreholes fitted with hand pumps, remains a challenge. This study evaluates whether coverage targets set out within the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) inadvertently increased the challenge to sustainably manage water supply infrastructure. Furthermore, the drive towards decentralised service delivery contributes to the financial burden of water supply assets. A sample size of 14,943 Afridev hand pump boreholes was extracted from a comprehensive live data set of 68,984 water points across Malawi to investigate the sustainability burden as emphasis shifts to the 2030 agenda. The results demonstrate that the push for coverage within the MDG era has impacted the sustainability of assets. A lack of proactive approaches towards major repairs and sub-standard borehole construction alongside aging infrastructure contributes to reduced functionality of decentralised supplies. Furthermore, costly rehabilitation is required to bring assets to operational standards, in which external support is commonly relied upon. Acceleration towards the coverage targets has contributed towards unsustainable infrastructure that has further implications moving forward. These findings support the need for Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) investment planning to move from a focus on coverage targets to a focus on quality infrastructure and proactive monitoring approaches to reduce the future burden placed on communities.

Asymmetric Policy Concept for Border Areas Development: Issues and Challenges

Since the enactment of Law No. 23 Year 2014 about Local Government, there is a mechanism shift in service delivery from the local government to central government, especially related to infrastructure management in border areas. This shift has reversed the policy of decentralized service delivery mechanism to centralized one. This policy has confused the local governments in adjusting their policies to the central government policies. Thus, an asymmetric policy needs to be implemented in order to accelerate border areas development. This paper intends to propose the alternative options in dealing with the new policy and to design a better way how the central government may intervene asymmetrically the sub-national governments in accelerating development and service delivery mechanism in border areas. The descriptive analysis is used as the main method for this paper.

Lost in Representation? Feminist identity Economics and Women's Agency in India's Local Governments

ABSTRACTIn India, since 1992, quotas for women in local councils are a key policy mechanism to secure gender equality in political participation and foster rural development. Affirmative action measures were expected to particularly enhance women's agency regarding decisions on decentralized service delivery. However, to date, this potentially transformative reform to the local government system has produced mixed results. This study updates identity economics with intersectional and institutional theories to shed light on the agency of elected women representatives (EWRs) in different federal states of India. The findings show that institutions, including social norms, entail specific identity costs that reinforce stereotyped accounts on women's political agency. Additional policy measures are required to address the incurred costs and render quotas for women effective. The analysis illustrates that an identity economics perspective, grounded in feminist thought, can yield valuable insights for investigating women's agency and for designing gender-sensitive policies.

Preference of methadone maintenance patients for the integrative and decentralized service delivery models in Vietnam.

BackgroundIntegrating and decentralizing services are essential to increase the accessibility and provide comprehensive care for methadone patients. Moreover, they assure the sustainability of a HIV/AIDS prevention program by reducing the implementation cost. This study aimed to measure the preference of patients enrolling in a MMT program for integrated and decentralized MMT clinics and then further examine related factors.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted among 510 patients receiving methadone at 3 clinics in Hanoi. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data about the preference for integrated and decentralized MMT services. Covariates including socio-economic status; health-related quality of life (using EQ-5D-5 L instrument) and HIV status; history of drug use along with MMT treatment; and exposure to the discrimination within family and community were also investigated. Multivariate logistic regression with polynomial fractions was used to identify the determinants of preference for integrative and decentralized models.ResultsOf 510 patients enrolled, 66.7 and 60.8 % preferred integrated and decentralized models, respectively. The main reason for preferring the integrative model was the convenience of use of various services (53.2 %), while more privacy (43.5 %) was the primary reason to select stand-alone model. People preferred the decentralized model primarily because of travel cost reduction (95.0 %), while the main reason for not selecting the model was increased privacy (7.7 %). After adjusting for covariates, factors influencing the preference for integrative model were poor socioeconomic status, anxiety/depression, history of drug rehabilitation, and ever disclosed health status; while exposure to community discrimination inversely associated with this preference. In addition, people who were self-employed, had a longer duration of MMT, and use current MMT with comprehensive HIV services were less likely to select decentralized model.ConclusionIn conclusion, the study confirmed the high preference of MMT patients for the integrative and decentralized MMT service delivery models. The convenience of healthcare services utilization and reduction of geographical barriers were the main reasons to use those models within drug use populations in Vietnam. Countering community stigma and encouraging communication between patients and their societies needed to be considered when implementing those models.

Comparison of satisfaction with care between two different models of HIV care delivery in St. Petersburg, Russia

Prior to 2010, medical care for people living with HIV/AIDS was provided at an outpatient facility near the center of St. Petersburg. Since then, HIV specialty clinics have been established in more outlying regions of the city. The study examined the effect of this decentralization of HIV care on patients’ satisfaction with care in clinics of St. Petersburg, Russia. We conducted a cross-sectional study with 418 HIV-positive patients receiving care at the St. Petersburg AIDS Center or at District Infectious Disease Departments (centralized and decentralized models, respectively). Face-to-face interviews included questions about psychosocial characteristics, patient's satisfaction with care, and clinic-related patient experience. ion of medical records provided information on patients’ viral load. To compare centralized and decentralized models of care delivery, we performed bivariate and multivariate analysis. Clients of District Infectious Disease Departments spent less time in lines and traveling to reach the clinic, and they had stronger relationships with their doctor. The overall satisfaction with care was high, with 86% of the sample reporting high level of satisfaction. Nevertheless, satisfaction with care was strongly and positively associated with the decentralized model of care and Patient–Doctor Relationship Score. Patient experience elements such as waiting time, travel time, and number of services used were not significant factors related to satisfaction. Given the positive association of satisfaction with decentralized service delivery, it is worth exploring decentralization as one way of improving healthcare services for people living with HIV/AIDS.

Democratising Ukraine by Promoting Decentralisation? A Study of Swiss-Ukraine Cooperation

This working paper focuses on cooperation between Switzerland and Ukraine to support decentralisation, local government reforms, and a decentralised provision of services at the local level. Decentralisation has become a central priority for the Ukrainian government, which came to power after the fall of the Yanukovych regime in 2014, and is seen as a way not only of democratising the country but most importantly as a way of dealing with the conflict that started in eastern Ukraine the same year. The paper studies the political factors that have blocked the process of reform with a particular focus on the role of the two most eastern oblasts, the centre of the conflict, and the implementation of a decentralised service delivery model by Switzerland in several pilot communities in Ukraine. The paper suggests that Switzerland could pay more attention to the political factors that have obstructed decentralisation and local government reform, leverage better ‘the drivers of change’, and better address regional factors in order to more effectively promote the reform process at the national level. The paper finds that the model of a decentralised service delivery developed and implemented by Switzerland, involving greater civic participation from local communities and the improvement in the capacities of local governments, has been successful, and has a wider democratisation potential. The model’s impact, however, has been limited as it was implemented only in several pilot communities, and Switzerland has not yet developed an approach to successfully scale up the model across the country and apply it to solving a wider number of social, political and economic issues. The findings of the paper are especially pertinent in view of the recent Swiss commitment to becoming more ‘political’ in development cooperation and to focusing more on the political side of democracy promotion.

Identifying product and process configuration requirements in a decentralised service delivery system

Designing new service solutions and improving the performance of existing ones have always played a central role in service management. In order to maintain the capability to create innovative solutions, a necessary step is to extend the closed management models towards understanding the systemic nature of services and how systemic characteristics affect service operations management. The main purpose of the study is to identify system characteristics in a service delivery system and to find out how they affect the product and process configurations on the operational level. The main contribution of the study is providing new insight into product and process configurations and how these static artefacts require dynamic information in order to work properly. The results are based on an empirical case study in a decentralised healthcare service delivery system. The practical and future research implications aim at adding systems thinking into service system research and service operations management.

Optimal Green Virtual Machine Migration Model

Cloud computing provides the opportunity to migrate virtual machines to “follow-the-green” data centres. That is, to migrate virtual machines between green data centres on the basis of clean energy availability, to mitigate the environmental impact of carbon footprint emissions and energy consumption. The virtual machine migration problem can be modelled to maximize the utility of computing resources or minimizing the cost of using computing resources. However, this would ignore the network energy consumption and its impact on the overall CO2 emissions. Unless this is taken into account the extra data traffic due to migration of data could then cause an increase in brown energy consumption and eventually lead to an unintended increase in carbon footprint emissions. Energy consumption is a key aspect in deploying distributed service in cloud networks within decentralized service delivery architectures. In this paper, the authors address an optimization view of the problem of locating a set of cloud services on a set of sites green data centres managed by a service provider or hybrid cloud computing brokerage. The authors’ goal is to minimize the overall network energy consumption and carbon footprint emissions for accessing the cloud services for any pair of data centres i and j. The authors propose an optimization migration model based on the development of integer linear programming (ILP) models, to identify the leverage of green energy sources with data centres and the energy consumption of migrating VMs.

Absence of Vertical Linkages and the Quest for Decentralized Service Delivery in Pakistan: An Innovation under Constraints

Local Government Ordinance, 2001 aimed to create a service-orientated local government by devolving many public services from the provincial to local levels. However, in many cases, local governments either did not have the capacity to manage them or the services extended across different geographic jurisdictions. The new system also restructured the three sub-national levels but without any vertical hierarchical linkages between them, and asked them to coordinate public service provision between them. This article suggests different remedies, including developing vertical administrative linkages and the reconstitution of Zila Mushawarat Committee to undertake coordination functions at intra-district level.